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of merchanfs frading over (he whole of Indio, (he croftsmen who
supplied (hem wifh goods, (he new lorger ci(ies, espedolly (hose
of (he Mouryo empire, and lo(er (he foreign conquerors. Bu( (he
Mouryo empire, imi(a(ed from Achoemenid-Persion and Helien-
is(ic pa((erns and only held (oge(her by (orce, dissolved, a((er (he
dea(h o( (he gen(le Buddhis( emperor Ashoka, once more in(o a
ioose con(edera(ion under (he Sunga and Kanva emperors. Thus
prevaiied (he na(ionalis( coun(erre(orma(ion o( (he Brahmins, who
on (he one hand based (hemselves on (he cour(s as cour( as(ro-
logers, sacri(icing pries(s and minis(ers, and on (he o(her hand
organised (he populär religions in(o a (ew large, (heoredcally
mono(heis(ic, (or pradical purposes poly(heis(ic sys(ems in which
(he innumerable local gods were incorporaied as various forms
of (he supreme God, his "power" (Sakli, wife), his emanalions
(children), incarnafions and heavenly following, and subordinafed
(o (he philosophy of cognifion and love of God.
I( was neverfheless fo fake cenfuries before (his movemeni was
sfrong enough, since (he smail sfafes were an easy prey (o
cenfral Asien conquerors, firsf (second cenfury B. C.) (he Greek
safraps of Bacfria (norfhern Afghanisfan), fhen (he Scyfhians
(firsf cenfury B. C. (o second A. D.) (Caf. 103; 127), Parfhians (abouf
(he firne of (he birfh of Chrisf, Thomas (he Aposfle), (he Yue-Chi
(Tochari) and Kushana (firsf (o fhird cenfuries A. D.). Meanwhiie
(he (own culfure became more and more de(ached from ifs village
background. Buddhism, proselyfising in Afghanisfan, easfern
Turkisfan and (inally in China and Japan, became increasingly
idenfified wifh Hellenism and (he barbarians of cenfral Asia. In
ifs place (he Hindu reiigions, Vishnuism (cuK of (he Heavenly
King), Sivaism (cuK of (he Crea(or), Sakfism (cuK of (he Mofher
God), and Surya Worship (of (he sun) became respecfable and
won over many powerfui foreigners (o nafionalism, (he Sanscrif
language of (he Vedic culf became (he uniform language of (he
Indian upper dass and i(s liferafure especially (he greaf nafional
epics of (he Mahabharafa and Ramayana, became (he bearers
of a new nafional ideology.
This finally fook shape In (he realm of (he Gupfa Emperor (320 (o
530/70 A. D.), (he golden age of Indian culfure, (he classic model
for all subsequenf cenfuries. A 'welfare s(a(e" embracing (he
whole of norfhern india and confrolling (he Deccan, foleranf, wifh
a social and economic sirucfure based on an even more elasfic
large-scale capifalism, (he Gupfa Empire slill uKimafely aspired
Io an arisfocrafic ideal, (he mos( perfecl, divinely inspired na
fional way of life in which all foreign cullural slimuli would also
be absorbed. Buf under (he confinual affacks of new cenfral-Asian
hordes of barbarians, (he "whife" Huns (Hephfhalifes), Shulikas
and Gurjaras, (he Gupfa Empire degenerafed in(o a number of
milifary sfafes (c. 530—750 A. D.); (he ravages of war, inflafion
and (he pressure of faxes desfroyed (he middle dass; (he large
cifies dwindied away; (he Buddhisf church supporfed by (he
middle dass losf ifs influence; (he Gupfa culfure became sub-
merged in (he feudal (radifionalism of (he Middle Ages.
3. THE SOUTH: Soufhern India had from an early dafe direc(
relaflons, sfill inadequafely explained, wifh Mesopofamia, Ara
bia, Egypf and Syria. From abouf 600 B. C. Brahmin and Kshafriya
colonisfs, and lafer Jainas and Buddhisfs, pushed (heir way in
from norfhern India, buf had fo conform fo (he nafive, originally
megalifhic culfure. The spiee (rode wifh (he Roman Empire en-
riched (he furfhesf Soufh (Tamil culfure of (he Samgam period,
fhird cenfury B. C. (o fhird cenfury A. D.) and promofed in (he
Deccan (he evolufion of (he greaf Empire of (he Safavahanas
(fhird (o firsf cenfury B. C. unfii (he beginning of (he fhird cen
fury A. D.). From (he (ourfh unfii (he fhird cenfury (he Gupfa
culfure penefrafed (he empires of (he Vakafakas, Kadambas, Pal
lavas and Gangas, and in consequence, from abou( 600, an
independanf form of culfure developed in (he empires of (he
Kanci Pallavas (Conjeevaram) and Vafapi Calukyas (Badomi, in
(he Deccan), borne by a populär reform firsf of Sivaism, fhen of
Vishnuism.
4. THE HINDU MIDDLE AGES (EIGHTH TO TWELFTH CENTURY
AND FOURTEENTH CENTURY): Befween (he eighlh and (enfh cen
furies, under fhe Prafihara Emperors of Kanauj and lafer under
fheir former vassals, fhe Solanki and Vagheia, Chauhan, Para-
mara, Candella and Haihaya (Kalachuri) in fhe norfh, fhe Rash-
frakufa, fhe lafer Calukya, Silahara, Hoyshala, Kakafya and Ya-
dava in fhe Deccan, fhe Cola and Pandya in fhe Soufh, fhe
mediaevai culfure of India assumed ifs final shape: on fhe one
hand all splendour, power and wealfh in fhe hands of fhe milifary
arisfocracy and (he priesfs' councils af fhe greaf (emples, on fhe
ofher hand fhe poverfy of fhe exploifed peasanfs, and befween
fhe (wo a very (hin layer of guilds of merchanfs and craffsmen.
Since, however, (he nobilify wore ouf fheir strengfh in confinual
sfruggles (or power, and fhe princes among fhem did likewise in
jockeying for highly insecure leading posifions, fhe influence and
fhus fhe wealfh of fhe femples, whose favour was courfed by all,
grew sfronger and sfronger. The religious (radifion, gradually ex-
fending and developing fhe Gupfa inherifance, dominafed fhe
