31 of merchanfs frading over (he whole of Indio, (he croftsmen who supplied (hem wifh goods, (he new lorger ci(ies, espedolly (hose of (he Mouryo empire, and lo(er (he foreign conquerors. Bu( (he Mouryo empire, imi(a(ed from Achoemenid-Persion and Helien- is(ic pa((erns and only held (oge(her by (orce, dissolved, a((er (he dea(h o( (he gen(le Buddhis( emperor Ashoka, once more in(o a ioose con(edera(ion under (he Sunga and Kanva emperors. Thus prevaiied (he na(ionalis( coun(erre(orma(ion o( (he Brahmins, who on (he one hand based (hemselves on (he cour(s as cour( as(ro- logers, sacri(icing pries(s and minis(ers, and on (he o(her hand organised (he populär religions in(o a (ew large, (heoredcally mono(heis(ic, (or pradical purposes poly(heis(ic sys(ems in which (he innumerable local gods were incorporaied as various forms of (he supreme God, his "power" (Sakli, wife), his emanalions (children), incarnafions and heavenly following, and subordinafed (o (he philosophy of cognifion and love of God. I( was neverfheless fo fake cenfuries before (his movemeni was sfrong enough, since (he smail sfafes were an easy prey (o cenfral Asien conquerors, firsf (second cenfury B. C.) (he Greek safraps of Bacfria (norfhern Afghanisfan), fhen (he Scyfhians (firsf cenfury B. C. (o second A. D.) (Caf. 103; 127), Parfhians (abouf (he firne of (he birfh of Chrisf, Thomas (he Aposfle), (he Yue-Chi (Tochari) and Kushana (firsf (o fhird cenfuries A. D.). Meanwhiie (he (own culfure became more and more de(ached from ifs village background. Buddhism, proselyfising in Afghanisfan, easfern Turkisfan and (inally in China and Japan, became increasingly idenfified wifh Hellenism and (he barbarians of cenfral Asia. In ifs place (he Hindu reiigions, Vishnuism (cuK of (he Heavenly King), Sivaism (cuK of (he Crea(or), Sakfism (cuK of (he Mofher God), and Surya Worship (of (he sun) became respecfable and won over many powerfui foreigners (o nafionalism, (he Sanscrif language of (he Vedic culf became (he uniform language of (he Indian upper dass and i(s liferafure especially (he greaf nafional epics of (he Mahabharafa and Ramayana, became (he bearers of a new nafional ideology. This finally fook shape In (he realm of (he Gupfa Emperor (320 (o 530/70 A. D.), (he golden age of Indian culfure, (he classic model for all subsequenf cenfuries. A 'welfare s(a(e" embracing (he whole of norfhern india and confrolling (he Deccan, foleranf, wifh a social and economic sirucfure based on an even more elasfic large-scale capifalism, (he Gupfa Empire slill uKimafely aspired Io an arisfocrafic ideal, (he mos( perfecl, divinely inspired na fional way of life in which all foreign cullural slimuli would also be absorbed. Buf under (he confinual affacks of new cenfral-Asian hordes of barbarians, (he "whife" Huns (Hephfhalifes), Shulikas and Gurjaras, (he Gupfa Empire degenerafed in(o a number of milifary sfafes (c. 530—750 A. D.); (he ravages of war, inflafion and (he pressure of faxes desfroyed (he middle dass; (he large cifies dwindied away; (he Buddhisf church supporfed by (he middle dass losf ifs influence; (he Gupfa culfure became sub- merged in (he feudal (radifionalism of (he Middle Ages. 3. THE SOUTH: Soufhern India had from an early dafe direc( relaflons, sfill inadequafely explained, wifh Mesopofamia, Ara bia, Egypf and Syria. From abouf 600 B. C. Brahmin and Kshafriya colonisfs, and lafer Jainas and Buddhisfs, pushed (heir way in from norfhern India, buf had fo conform fo (he nafive, originally megalifhic culfure. The spiee (rode wifh (he Roman Empire en- riched (he furfhesf Soufh (Tamil culfure of (he Samgam period, fhird cenfury B. C. (o fhird cenfury A. D.) and promofed in (he Deccan (he evolufion of (he greaf Empire of (he Safavahanas (fhird (o firsf cenfury B. C. unfii (he beginning of (he fhird cen fury A. D.). From (he (ourfh unfii (he fhird cenfury (he Gupfa culfure penefrafed (he empires of (he Vakafakas, Kadambas, Pal lavas and Gangas, and in consequence, from abou( 600, an independanf form of culfure developed in (he empires of (he Kanci Pallavas (Conjeevaram) and Vafapi Calukyas (Badomi, in (he Deccan), borne by a populär reform firsf of Sivaism, fhen of Vishnuism. 4. THE HINDU MIDDLE AGES (EIGHTH TO TWELFTH CENTURY AND FOURTEENTH CENTURY): Befween (he eighlh and (enfh cen furies, under fhe Prafihara Emperors of Kanauj and lafer under fheir former vassals, fhe Solanki and Vagheia, Chauhan, Para- mara, Candella and Haihaya (Kalachuri) in fhe norfh, fhe Rash- frakufa, fhe lafer Calukya, Silahara, Hoyshala, Kakafya and Ya- dava in fhe Deccan, fhe Cola and Pandya in fhe Soufh, fhe mediaevai culfure of India assumed ifs final shape: on fhe one hand all splendour, power and wealfh in fhe hands of fhe milifary arisfocracy and (he priesfs' councils af fhe greaf (emples, on fhe ofher hand fhe poverfy of fhe exploifed peasanfs, and befween fhe (wo a very (hin layer of guilds of merchanfs and craffsmen. Since, however, (he nobilify wore ouf fheir strengfh in confinual sfruggles (or power, and fhe princes among fhem did likewise in jockeying for highly insecure leading posifions, fhe influence and fhus fhe wealfh of fhe femples, whose favour was courfed by all, grew sfronger and sfronger. The religious (radifion, gradually ex- fending and developing fhe Gupfa inherifance, dominafed fhe